Category: Short Essays and Responses

The lives of the American blacks have endured a lot of hatred shortly after the establishment of America. It all began with slavery which officially ended in 1865, but it is something that has and will still continue to hold significance in the identity of American blacks. Laws were made to narrow the wide gap between the black race and the white race such as the end of public discrimination. Unfortunately, today there is still discrimination and unequal opportunities for the black community. The Anglo-Protestant cultural ideas that America was founded by, self-reliance, self-improvement, and the work ethic, is one that applies to the majority of America, but does not entirely apply to the American blacks. The blacks have experienced some of the Anglo-Protestant cultural ideas such as self-improvement through Affirmative Action, but the lack of equality and presence of discrimination outweighs the betterment that they have felt.  

The past is something that constantly affects the present and more so the future, so we ought not to forget about the past. In the lives of the American blacks, they are faced with the scary and sad truth of their race’s history. Many would think that if something harmful to society was taken away that society will return to peace and happiness shortly after. This can happen, but not at the magnitude of what the American blacks have gone through. Even with reforms such as the Fourteenth Amendment, “blacks remained nonetheless subject to extreme forms of segregation and discrimination, including denial of the right to vote, for another century” (Huntington, 55). This became a recurring pattern for the blacks just like when Affirmative Action was established, and companies and school administers still held American blacks to a lower standard. It hasn’t always been the case for blacks when they experienced positive reform; there has been improvement, but the point is that you cannot get completely rid of the past especially those with strong views so there continues to be a mistreatment of American blacks. 

American blacks cannot take full advantage of the Anglo-Protestant cultural ideas because ever since they stepped foot on American soil, they were never seen as equal to the white race. The hatred and out-right mistreatment has decreased, but it is still present. The fate of an American black is different than an American white, and it is important to understand that the Anglo-Protestant cultural ideas were put forth only for the American whites. Since the abolishment of slavery, America has been trying to even out the imbalance between blacks and whites, but once a race experiences such abuse then it is nearly impossible to change the views of others especially the ones who were in control. It is tough for a superior race to see a race that was inferior for so long as the same. That is what is happening in America today. “The overwhelming consensus is that current racial inequalities are the result of historical oppression” (Wax, 13). The matter of the fact is that we cannot change the past, but we can learn from it and do everything we can to better the future, so that such mistreatment of a race doesn’t happen again. 

Through the introduction of the institution of slavery, the unique situation of American blacks was formed. Once Africans were thrown onto the slave ships, they experienced a loss of ethnic identity. These people were no longer defined by their individual tribes and groups, instead race was formed and they became labeled simply as “black.” When they reached America, they were understood as commodities, not worthy of being titled human. As time has passed, progress has been made. Blacks were freed from slavery and now have the rights of white Americans. However, as Wax alludes to in Race, Wrongs and Remedies it is evident that there are still great discrepancies between the lives of blacks and whites in America that are remnants of the past. Considering that the United States of America was settled by Anglo-Protestants, and is therefore rooted in cultural ideals including self-reliance, self-improvement, and the work ethic, it is necessary to consider whether these values hold true today for all Americans, including blacks. We can effectively understand aspects of the situation of American blacks through the Anglo-Protestant view of American identity. Historically disadvantaged groups are not entirely powerless, however a balance between systematic changes and individual changes must be implemented. 

As previously established, the particular situation of American blacks is a result of past events, such as slavery. Through time, improvement has occurred. For example, blacks were eventually freed from slavery, given the right to vote, segregation came to an end, and there have been many attempts to establish institutional diversity. It is important to note that many improvements and steps forward have come from individual demands and protests. For example, as a result of the Civil Rights Movement, in which many groups came together to gain more rights for American blacks, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. This act ended public segregation and employment discrimination. This structural and governmental change would never have occurred without the influence of individuals who stepped up and fought for their rights. Through Wax’s novel, she argues that it is now on the shoulders of American blacks to remedy the discrimination that prevails in America against them. However, as can be seen in the case of the Civil Rights Movement, it is a combination of societal changes and individual changes that most effectively lead to change. 

Another situation in which it is clear that American blacks are not entirely powerless to help themselves is that of mass incarceration. There are significantly more black Americans in jail than any other race or ethnicity in the country. This could most definitely be a result of racism and discrimination, and arguably is. Therefore, it is necessary for this discrimination to be eradicated. However, this cannot occur unless citizens force systematic changes. Wax argues that it is the responsibility of American blacks to change their point of view, escape the psychology of victimization, and change their behavior. But it is necessary to recognize that just because more black Americans are in jail does not necessarily indicate that they are committing any more crimes than other races, it only indicates that they are the ones most often caught and penalized for crime. In this case, behavior may not be the only aspect of the situation that needs to be altered. Therefore, it is not entirely up to the individual to make changes, but it is an important aspect for effective progress. Individual efforts and behavioral alterations can lead to necessary structural changes.

It can be stated that the position of black Americans in the country today is a result of the past and conceptions of race that were placed on these people. However, as Wax states, this does not render black Americans powerless in the steps toward progress. Of course their position in society was not created by themselves, and therefore in an ideal world they would be restored to equality without having to contribute to this restoration, but a combination of structural changes and individual effort is most effective. The original Anglo-Protestant view of American identity, self-reliance, self-improvement, and work ethic, is compatible with future progress of historically disadvantaged groups such as black Americans. It has an important role in this progress, however it is not the only strategy that should be implemented.

In order to understand the situation of American blacks, we must not throw out earlier ways of conceiving American identity. Instead, we must adapt these conceptions and combine them with the psychology of victimization described in Wax’s book in order to understand the situation of American blacks. Additionally, we must consider institutions such as slavery and structural racism that have put blacks at a disadvantage while searching for equal opportunity in society. Although Wax cites that race-based discrimination accounts for a small portion of disparity, and advocates for reforming culture instead of utilizing government programs and structural changes, a mix of these approaches is essential in order to empower blacks and allow them to align with the modified view of American identity that is the “deconstructionist” identity introduced by Huntington in Who Are We?

            Wax asserts that victimization by blacks has been a “defining part of group identity throughout our national history” (97). Further, Wax explains the distinction between the internal and external locus of control. A person with an external locus of control “tends to believe that his destiny is largely out of his hands. The most important forces in his life are bad luck or social impediments such as discrimination” (98). On the other hand, a person with an internal locus of control “regards his fate as largely a product of his own actions, decisions and choices. Such a person ignores or discounts external barriers” (98). Wax goes on to assert that some evidence shows that blacks tend to have more of an external locus than whites. Most of Wax’s argument is that blacks focus much more on external forces that are out of their control, hence the title of the chapter “The Psychology of Victimization”. Even though Wax has a well thought out argument, she fails to fully recognize that whites have had advantages over blacks and other minorities since the beginning of America. Although a shift to an internal locus of control would benefit all members of society, something like this will take time. Also, in order to have a national identity for all, it is essential for people to be more understanding of past institutions such as slavery that left blacks at a disadvantage. Additionally, we must draw back on the strong national identity that was largely created by whites in order to allow minority groups to align with an identity that is more accepting and full of other subnational identities.  

            Wax outlines the two approaches to improving the situation for blacks in America. The first is government programs and structural changes such as education and employment remedies. The second approach is “an inner focus on reforming the culture and altering individual values and behaviors” (95). Wax argues that the government programs and structural changes have outlived their usefulness, and we must look toward reforming culture and altering individual values and cultures. Additionally, Wax argues that many people turn to blame race-based discrimination for many issues in society, yet this “explains a very small part of existing differences in educational attainment, jobs, wages, family structure, consumer credit rates, and involvement with the criminal justice system”(95). Although Wax argues that an approach utilizing both structural changes and cultural changes has proved to be futile, it is still necessary. Drawing back on government programs would make the situation for blacks even worse. Although cultural change is a novel idea, it seems unattainable and also does not contribute to a deconstructionist identity. We must be accepting of culture, instead of changing it. Continuing government programs as well as promoting an internal locus of control will allow for improvements for both blacks and society as a whole.

            In order to understand the situation of blacks, we must adapt the Anglo-Protestant view of identity, and create a more deconstructionist identity. As pointed out by Huntington in Who Are We?, “in the 1960s and 1970s they began to promote measures consciously designed to weaken America’s cultural and creedal identity and to strengthen racial, ethnic, cultural, and other subnational identities” (Huntington 143). Continuing to adapt a deconstructionist identity and developing a sense of empathy for past hardships will allow blacks and other minorities to be empowered and improve their condition. Overall, it is seemingly impossible to change a culture, but with a combination of government programs, a deconstructionist identity, empathy, and a promotion of the internal locus of control, we can better understand the situation of American blacks and help American blacks rise above disparity.