just to help situate some of what’s coming in the last chunk of the novel.
………………………………………………………………………..
There are at least four broadly defined classes in the Mexican social hierarchy post-conquest:
- Elite: full blood Spaniard from the ‘old country’
- Creole: of full Spanish heritage, born in Mexico
- Mestizo: mixed indigenous and Spanish heritage
- Indian: full indigenous
Spanish exploitation of the colony was intense—little development while there, e.g., in 300 years, the Spanish only constructed 3 highways worthy of the name—Church and military the two strongest institutions in post-Independence Mexico
The War of Independence (1810-1821), which created constitutional monarchy (Plan de Iguala)
There is a long list of founders in the wake of this war who were executed by their own successors:
- Hidalgo and Morelos, revolutionary priests, defeated and executed
- Iturbide, first post-Spain ruler of Mexico (later Emperor), executed only a few years later
From 1821 to 1860, Mexico has at least 50 separate presidencies, each lasting an average of less than a year—35 of these regimes were led by army officers
- The most famous caudillo was Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was president on 9 separate occasions during this period
Mexican-American War (1846-48): Texas declares independence 1836, but not immediately claimed by US—in 1845 Congress votes to annex, and President Polk sends US troops into disputed territory (Nueces Strip in Texas between Rio Grande and Nueces River)—US invades Veracruz with Winfield Scott, the celebrated Niños Heroés at Chapultepec Castle–in Mexico, the war is called “The War of the North American Invasion”
Important political leaders between Mexican-American War and Mexican Revolution
- Benito Juarez—president five different times between 1861 and 1872
- Porfirio Diaz (his rule known as the ‘Porfiriato’)—1876-1911—military dictator
The Mexican Revolution (roughly 1910 to around 1920): incredibly violent, owing to newer weapon technology—this would become evident in the world in a few years (WWI, and then WWII)—machine guns, modern artillery
Francisco Madero (whose brother Gustavo shared his political views and was engaged to Alfonsa in the novel), wealthy liberal landowner challenges Diaz for presidency in 1910 and is jailed, initiates the Revolution with the Plan of San Luis Potosí (call to nullify Diaz’s electoral win in 1910 and rise up in arms against his regime)
Diaz is overthrown in 1911, flees to Europe, Madero is elected president, but he is deposed by a military junta led by General Huerta (also mentioned in the novel) and executed, and the country falls into prolonged civil war
Huerta is eventually deposed in 1914 and then there is a struggle between moderate forces, headed politically by Venustiano Carranza, and more radical forces, led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. By 1917, the Carranza forces are in firm control, though fighting continues for several years more. In 1917, the modern Mexican Constitution is created.
By 1929, the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) has become a one-party dictatorship and they hold the government for nearly the next three quarters of a century, until 2000. So the novel takes place in the early decades of PRI rule, barely a generation after the conclusion of the fighting in the Revolution.